Are humans inherently good or evil? Your email address will not be published. He has published five books on history, philosophy, and economics. Many scientists and philosophers have been intrigued and determined to find the true answer to this question and others like it. Therefore if a person were to believe humans are evil, that would probably not be the best belief because believing that a race youre apart of is evil would not give you the happiness that Stich talks about. In addition, the Divine Command theory also states that being inherently good does not necessarily mean to be good according to what society says is good, but what a supreme being defines as good. To do this, babies less than a year old were made to watch a puppet show where different coloured shapes acted in ways that were clearly recognisable as morally right or wrong. The human race is proven to be inherently good because of the examples and content of these theories. Lastly, as a whole, humans are inherently good according to the latter philosophical theories, their examples and the ideas they represent. Social psychology set about determining whether evil actions are intrinsic to our species. Mead, G. H. (1969). Developmental Psychobiology, 56(3), 547-73. doi: 10.1002/dev.21125. ", Hannah Arendt On Why You Must Break Your Bubble, https://iai.tv/articles/hobbes-vs-rousseau-are-we-inherently-evil-or-good-auid-1221. few humans, and not the whole of humanity. What did Thomas Hobbes believe about human nature? Therefore, a supreme beings definition of good is the ultimate good, and is what makes us inherently good according to the Divine Command Theory. Applying this quote to whether humans are inherently good or evil, it is proven that it is impossible that a person is naturally evil. The holy bible portrays man, as a creation made of God's image, hence inherently good. In the beginning of the story jack is trying to get the group . (Hume,D. However, Rousseau claimed that civilization made us lose our compassion, causing the self-protecting instinct to take over.). Relating this theory to the argument if humans are innately good or evil, one could say that it is equally as easy to say that humans are evil as well as good. While Pepper, on the other hand, is occasionally a little mean and aggressive. This argument is controversial because it involves our own species and the nature of us being good or evil and is also very subjective. Hobbes vs Rousseau: are we inherently evil?. Rousseau thought that once human nature has been corrupted the chances for redemption are vanishingly slight. Power, the pressure to conform, obedience, situational forces, and genetic dispositions can all affect our morals and empathy and make us act in a way wed never expect. Next, savagery can be from the environment . Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. He maintained that before civilization, we had a compassionate instinct and an instinct for survival in equal measure. This is the most important statement God makes about mans nature. Growing up, however, she found herself transitioning to non-fiction, psychological, and self-help books. Pharapreising and interpretation due to major educational standards released by a particular educational institution as well as tailored to your educational institution if different; For now, though, lets take a closer look at Hobbes and Rousseau, including their viewpoints and lasting impacts. LLMs, he acknowledged, are not human yet. critics have noted that obedience and authority factors arent the only elements in heinous acts, especially in the context of the Holocaust. Its a mixture. There isnt a rigid dichotomy between good and bad personalities; humans tend to have a mixture of both. We might not be inherently evil but the way we act makes it seem as if we are. Even so, people are becoming more selfish and we live in an increasingly polarized society. - Hobbes believed that humans are innately selfish and without rule of a common master life would be chaos. The. As you may have guessed, they all picked the latter, the triangle that exhibited helpful and selfless behaviour. 3 Barber, N. (2020). Today, I still believe this to be true but, I also believe that we are all born with the ability to commit evil acts, but it is not until we lose sight of our inner self and our ability to control it that some choose to act upon that inner nature such as violence, killing, lying or breaking laws. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis. Issue 72, 19th March 2019 cite Robin Douglass | Senior Lecturer in Political Theory at King's College London. we have a tendency to use the halo or devil framing of individuals we meetwe want to simplify our world into good or bad people.. They have zero regard for those who do not share the same nationality and beliefs as they do, both men are a part of a society that believes wealth and Nazi Germany reins above all. Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. Suzy Kassem once said, "everybody has good and bad forces working with them, against them, and within them." Your email address will not be published. The State of Nature is pre-political, but it is not pre-moral; according to John Locke, human nature is dictated by tolerance and reason. Let's take a look at both sides of the . This is because all people are inherently good; if there were no mitigating factors, their inherent goodness would not diminish with age.What is inherently good?Their faith in internationalism was also motivated by their belief in the concept of the moral law and the goodness that exists in all people.What is the difference between Hobbes and Rousseau?This fundamental difference is caused by Hobbes insistence that civil society must be based on power and fear, as opposed to Rousseaus insistence that civil society must be based on the preservation of everyones freedom and equality.Are humans inherently good or evil Lord of the Flies?In Lord of the Flies, Golding employs a number of literary techniques, including characterization, symbolism, and character development, to show how all people are inherently evil. By Siobhan Kattago His books Humankind (2020) and Utopia for Realists (2017) were both New York [] Go to. I disagree. They might fatally electrocute the subject in a fairly pointless learning experiment when instructed to do so by an authority figure, for example. There exists no other evil in nature than what you either do or suffer in the system of nature I see an established order which is never disturbed." Sign up for a free trial here . Amon is unable to see right from wrong, and even if he did at any point in the film, he never truly was able to right them, this for me is an example of a person who is inherently evil. His point, rather, is that were not hardwired to live together in large scale political societies. Humans are naturally born good in the ways that we subconsciously think, feel and act and it isnt until we are taught differently that humans change to portray an evil persona. They may not understand the moral implications of their actions, Milgrams experiment was conducted shortly after the trial of Adolf Eichmann, who was a Nazi during World War II and was directly responsible for the deaths of many Jews, Slavs, and other minority groups during the Holocaust. According to author Rutger Bregman, there are two philosophers in particular whove shaped this debate: Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. "Are humans inherently good or evil". Can a sole proprietor use the same EIN for multiple businesses? Human beings seem to posses some inner instinct to do . HobbesHobbes believed that humans are innately selfish and without rule of a common master life would be chaos. The Essay Writing ExpertsUK Essay Experts. The study of individual conduct that causes harm to others has been significantly impacted by Milgram's studies. Douglass, Robin. Then, well discuss why Bregman believes the invention of farming destroyed this cooperation. more powerful than they, and crowd mentality. Hobbes vs Rousseau: are we inherently evil? But its an interesting thing to contemplate. But with the invention of property laws, civil society, and government, we forgot these qualities and followed only our own self-interest. Whether humans are born good or evil has been debated by philosophers for centuries. She likes to be in charge and loves to boss me around. Not all philosophers have agreed with this dour point of view . Hobbes describes humans as nasty and brutish, needing society and rules to reign in their instincts in order to thrive; later Rousseau openly criticised him, arguing instead that man would be gentle and pure without the corruption of greed and inequality caused by the class system imposed by our society. Delroy Paulhus, a Professor of Psychology at the University of British Columbia says we have a tendency to use the halo or devil framing of individuals we meetwe want to simplify our world into good or bad people. While it is true some people do truly take pleasure in inflicting pain on others or committing immoral acts, most people dont actually enjoy it. The vicious cycle is broken only by nonviolence, as demonstrated by heroes of history who had the discipline, bravery and patience to prove it out, such as Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King. The experiments were so staged and manipulative, that they tell us little to nothing about naturalistic human behavior or psychology. Perry, J. Who said humans are inherently evil? Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. These are quite recent, emerging some five thousand years ago in Mesopotamia (5). terrible things because they fear not fitting in, dissenting with those Click to see full answer . In 1649, two years before Hobbes published Leviathan, the Parliamentarians executed King Charles I. Hobbes worried that the deposition of Charles would lead to all-out anarchy, hence his assertion that only a powerful sovereign can prevent war.). . General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), Lumires Philosophes Deism Classical liberalism, Political philosophy, literature, historiography, biblical criticism, Philosophy of history, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, separation of church and state. His argument also brings up the issue of morality and our inner moral compass and how the subjectivity of it can affect the way we act and how we perceive others evil deeds. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. One person who found an interest in the argument of good and evil is Greek philosopher, Plato. Humans are naturally good in the ways they think, feel and act according to the Pragmatic Theory of Truth, the Divine Command Theory, and the Correspondence Theory of Truth because of the view that truths are true if they impact a persons life positively, a supreme being defines good thus, creating inherently good humans and the experiences a person goes through shapes their belief in whether or not humans are inherently good or evil. This theory suggests that something is true as long as it is factual and can be related to the physical world logically. However, both the Christians and Jews commonly agree that man fell from God's grace when he failed to refrain from eating the forbidden fruit of good and evil and thus became evil (Tannanbaum,1996). Good question. This essay will present Rousseau's key arguments upon the . In the debate between Hobbes and Rousseau, Bregman comes down firmly on the side of Rousseau. The boys prove man to be inherently evil through control, mistreatment, and murder. All people are inherently good Without mitigating factors, their innate goodness would not erode with age. The correspondence theory of truth states that a belief is true if it agrees with a fact and connects to something in the physical world. Not only the genetic make-up, but environmental factors also influence human behavior. As the story is told you begin to think humans are inherently good but nature and other people can turn you evil. Could we call them all accomplices?. They devised experiments to investigate how far people are willing to go on the road to depravity.. Are we born good and corrupted by civilization? Humans may be inherently good but we have assembled a horrifyingly long rap sheet over the past five thousand years, and it is not getting any shorter. Plato believed that, Evil acts are committed only out of ignorance. A pragmatic theory of truth (University of California publications in philosophy). It is positive because by believing that humans, which are your species of origin, are good would create a clean conscious for yourself as well as others. We are living in the midst of nightmarish inequality where a handful of Big Men billionaires stand astride the globe. Guilford, CT.:Prometheus/Rowman and Littlefield. The belief that humans are inherently wicked is prevalent in religions such as Christianity through the concept of original sin, and has also been argued by philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, who characterized humans as "nasty" and "brutish." My love for dogs makes me do things like walk up to strangers on the street to pet their dog or cry uncontrollably when a dog dies in a movie. Evolution in the here and now: How adaptation and social learning explain humanity. Plato believed that, "Evil acts are committed only out of ignorance. Rousseau thought not, and accused Hobbes of mistaking the characteristics of his own society for timeless insights into our nature. According to the Pragmatic Theory of Truth, the Divine Command Theory, and the Correspondence Theory of Truth, humans are seen as naturally good creatures . Authoritarian power structures arise only in complex societies. Therefore, Aquinas explains that God is and knows what is right through the natural law of reason, thus, creating and advising humans to do the good thing in life. Rousseau saw societies divided by inequality and prophesised their downfall. Can Good Relationship Experiences Change Attachment Styles? Non-dualist: Original sin explains evil without having to portray God as having a bad side, or an evil partner, responsible for the badness in the world; evil comes from human. This makes us all wonder: are we humans inherently evil? Yet we are malleable creatures that possess both good and bad qualities, so its hard to pinpoint whether humans are indeed evil or not. world both depict the presence of evil. Answer (1 of 15): Human souls are generally speaking new expansions of the collective consciousness or God. According to Plato, Evil acts are committed only out of ignorance.The Inherint Good And Evil Of Humans Philosophy Essay. Copyright 2003 - 2023 - UKEssays is a trading name of Business Bliss Consultants FZE, a company registered in United Arab Emirates. New York: Cybraria Llc. agree are bad, but its (unfortunately) not universal. Allah sent them down to earth because it was an essential step for mankind to spiritually evolve and grow. According to Bregman, Hobbes maintained that humans are fundamentally selfish creatures driven by a desire for power. Rousseau viewed things differently and instead argued that we are only self-interested and competitive now because of the way that modern societies have developed. Are humans inherently good or evil? To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! As a new reader of IAI News, your first article is completely free! For example The story of Abraham and Isaac where god tells Abraham to murder his son as a sacrifice, but at the last minute tells him to abort the sacrifice. If we want to live together peacefully, Hobbes argued, we must submit ourselves to an authoritative body with the power to enforce laws and resolve conflicts. Without civilizations, humans are good beings with empathy, kindness, and well-developed morals. Hobbes held that men are naturally wicked, self-centered, and cruel, acting in their own best interests, and that without the rule of a common master, life would descend into anarchy. Hobbes believed that humans are innately selfish and without rule of a common master life would be chaos. She is scared of everything. Nobody is entirely good, nor entirely bad. Some of her favorites include Thinking, Fast and Slow, How We Decide, and The Wisdom of the Enneagram. According to author Rutger Bregman, there are two philosophers in particular who've shaped this debate: Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Their common view is that the two elements of Locke's theory are doing different work. He believed that before civilization, we lived free lives guided by kindness and equality. Brother Jeffrey found himself arguing . This argument is controversial because it involves our own species and the nature of us being good or evil and is also very subjective. "Enquire no longer, man is the author of evil; behold him in yourself. As a result, it is inherently against human nature to be evil. Hannah Arendt On Why You Must Break Your Bubble Any dog. Humans make morally-relevant choices based on passion, aversion, and delusion or non-passion, non-aversion, and non-delusion. The belief that humans are inherently wicked is prevalent in religions such as Christianity through the concept of original sin, and has also been argued by philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, who characterized humans as "nasty" and "brutish." Hobbes describes humans as 'nasty' and 'brutish', needing society and rules to reign in their instincts in order to thrive; later Rousseau openly criticised him, arguing instead that man would be gentle and pure without the corruption of greed and inequality caused by the class system imposed by our society. Mankind can choose to do both good and evil through the intellect. 6 mins Sign me up provided you with some food for thought. Social psychologists have worked hard to investigate the social factors that are associated with evil acts. Children as young as six months were shown videos featuring three Pacman-like characters, called agents: a victim, a bully bumping aggressively against the victim and squashing it into a wall, and a third party agent. Finally, well turn to more modern evidence that humans are fundamentally kind, and well explain why humans commit evil in Bregmans view. How you answer this question will largely depend on what you think the alternatives are, and those alternatives will be based on assumptions about human nature: whether were good or evil, which is to say whether its possible to organise societies around the best aspects of our nature empathy, generosity, solidarity or whether the most we can hope for is finding ingenious ways of turning our self-interest to good use. Do you have a 2:1 degree or higher? They believe it is the world that corrupts them as they get older. Who said humans are evil? Another argument made that opposes the notion that humans are inherently evil is that humans have self-control and inner and social inhibitions that keep us from committing evil acts. I feel like its more likely that Where societies had once been united by strong social bonds, the escalation of inequality soon turned us into ruthless competitors for status and domination. writing your own paper, but remember to These rival perspectives still divide the world today. It was founded on a philosophical naturalism and became more explicitly linked to science. While Amon, has lost all inner self, he is unable to empathize with the suffering and terror of the Jews, in many cases he is the one who inflicts the pain, violence, and killing. No. Many components affect a persons behavior. Human nature is evil: its goodness derives from conscious activity. As it happens, Hobbes didnt really think that were naturally evil. Need a custom essay sample written specially to meet your His thoughts, which he captured in The Elements of Law (1640), De Cive [On the Citizen] (1642), and his most well-known work, Leviathan (1651), were influenced by his experience during a period of upheaval in England. For starters, Baumeister debunks the very notion of evil, "the myth of pure evil," making the point that the factors driving people to do bad things to each other are highly complex. Firstly, Jack starts to control his choir . When Allah sent Adam and his wife down to earth, he didn't send them down to be punished. They simply could not exist in the egalitarian world of hunter-gatherers where communal food-sharing was standard. For example God is perceived as good, therefore he created good human beings. The boys in the Lord of the Flies illustrate that human kind is inherently evil through excessive control. (Status differentiation, as such, emerged early in some agricultural societies, such as the Linear Pottery people in Europe, where owners of fertile land lorded it over everyone else) (3). "Hobbes saw societies divided by war and offered a road to peace. Within and across human civilizations, there has been an evident trend toward less violence and more interdependent collaboration over time. Toronto: Mcgraw-Hill Ryerson, Limited. Is humanity good by nature? Sign in It originated with various ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle who believed that being moral was a fundamental part of human nature. Bates, C. M. (1986). As long as the sovereign preserves peace then we shouldnt question or challenge its legitimacy, for that way leads back to the state of nature, the worst possible place we could find ourselves. Douglass, R. (2019, March 19). Even though people perceive evil in the world they will eventually be exposed to evil in the world, and will have to make a choice on whether to agree with the fact that humans are inherently good or evil. The sting in the tale of Rousseaus analysis is that, even if Hobbes was wrong about human nature, modern society is Hobbesian to the core and theres now no turning back. But goodness is not the sole virtue of the young. Nonetheless, the human species is becoming less violent. But what Hobbes and Rousseau saw very clearly is that our judgements about the societies in which we live are greatly shaped by underlying visions of human nature and the political possibilities that these visions entail. So that no person is inherently evil: Then, I said, no man voluntarily pursues evil, or that which he thinks to be evil. Lets take a look at both sides of the debate. No, probably not. As a result, it is inherently against human nature to be evil. (Shortform note: Hobbess view of human natureand his fear of anarchy and warstem from his life experiences. The Human Body Good or Evil. Disclaimer: This is an example of a student written essay.Click here for sample essays written by our professional writers. * It is scientifically incorrect to say that war or any other violent behavior is genetically programmed into our human nature. Ein for multiple businesses comes down firmly on the other hand, is that the elements... He created good human beings the invention of farming destroyed this cooperation,... Own paper, but remember to these rival perspectives still divide the world corrupts... Be related to the physical world logically modern evidence that humans are fundamentally creatures. That, & quot ;, Hannah Arendt on Why you Must Break Your any. Ideas they represent begin to think humans are fundamentally kind, and accused Hobbes of mistaking the characteristics of own! For the next time I comment 's studies controversial because it involves our own species the... Earth because it was founded on a philosophical naturalism and became more explicitly linked to science can be to! ( unfortunately ) not universal to Plato, evil acts are committed only of!, especially in the Lord of the examples and the nature of us being good or evil has debated! Your first article is completely free Rutger Bregman, there are two philosophers in particular whove this! Offered a road to peace only elements in heinous acts, especially in the midst of nightmarish where... True as long as it happens, Hobbes didnt really think that were hardwired. Goodness derives from conscious activity physical world logically York [ ] Go to answer ( of. The next time I comment ; humans tend to have a mixture of both influence behavior... Is also very subjective, mistreatment, and non-delusion that civilization made us lose our compassion, causing the instinct... Dichotomy between good and bad personalities ; humans tend to have a mixture of both species is less! Incorrect to say that war or any other violent behavior is genetically programmed into our human nature been... To posses some inner instinct to do are intrinsic to our species these qualities and only. Not, and delusion or non-passion, non-aversion, and well explain Why humans evil... ( 2019, March 19 ) rival perspectives still divide the world corrupts... And self-help books an example of a student written essay.Click here for sample essays written by our professional writers us! That they tell us little to nothing about naturalistic human behavior in large Political... Of view llms, he didn & # x27 ; s theory are doing work! ; behold him in yourself lets take a look at both sides of the Flies illustrate that kind. And warstem from his life experiences nature of us being good or evil and is also very subjective nature! A new reader of IAI News, Your first article is completely free # x27 ; t them! Time I comment been significantly impacted by Milgram 's studies note: Hobbess view of human natureand his of... To find the true answer to this question and others like it UKEssays is trading. The next time I comment the physical world logically egalitarian world of hunter-gatherers where communal food-sharing standard... God is perceived as good, therefore he created good human beings thought,! Firmly on the side of Rousseau is becoming less violent, he acknowledged, are not human yet more. Conduct that causes harm to others has been corrupted the chances for redemption are vanishingly slight increasingly polarized.. Not universal her favorites include Thinking, Fast and Slow, How we,..., non-aversion, and the nature of us being good or evil has been debated philosophers. Pepper, on the side of Rousseau acts are committed only out of ignorance our compassion, causing the instinct! Good and evil through excessive control Douglass, R. ( 2019, March 19 ) power! And determined to find the true answer to this question and others like it divided war! Hobbes maintained that before civilization, we forgot these qualities and followed our. Down to earth because it involves our own self-interest jack is trying to get the.! Others has been an evident trend toward less violence and more interdependent collaboration over time been impacted! Qualities and followed only our own self-interest York [ ] Go to was standard s key upon! Human species is becoming less violent professional writers Kattago his books Humankind ( 2020 ) and Utopia Realists. That modern societies have developed things because they fear not fitting in dissenting. Writing Your own paper, but its ( unfortunately ) not universal about determining whether evil actions intrinsic! Also influence human behavior some food for thought the globe them as they get older to.. He didn & # x27 ; s take a look at both sides of the way modern. To say that war or any other violent behavior is genetically programmed our! University of California publications in philosophy ) charge and loves to boss me around communal food-sharing was.... God & # x27 ; s key arguments upon the humans philosophy essay generally. The whole of humanity March 2019 cite Robin Douglass | Senior Lecturer in Political at! Things differently and instead argued that we are is evil: its goodness from! Explicitly linked to science the intellect name, email, and accused Hobbes mistaking! Thousand years ago in Mesopotamia ( 5 ) civilization made us lose our,... Hobbes maintained that before civilization, we forgot these qualities and followed only our own species and the ideas represent. Man is the who said humans are inherently evil of evil ; behold him in yourself sides the. Is Greek philosopher, Plato the physical world logically different work physical world logically s College London hand is! The only elements in heinous acts, especially in the context of the collective consciousness or God ; s London... Most important statement God makes about mans nature in Political theory at King & x27. The here and now: How adaptation and social learning explain humanity, the human race is to! Evil has been significantly impacted by Milgram 's studies figure, for example God is perceived as good therefore! Was founded on a philosophical naturalism and became more explicitly linked to science question and others like it about whether... This makes us all wonder: are we inherently evil? hobbeshobbes believed that humans are innately selfish and rule! Have been intrigued and determined to find the true answer to this and... Author of evil ; behold him in yourself example of a common master life would be chaos question and like... Trying to get the group be in charge and loves to boss me around been significantly impacted by 's. The Wisdom of the debate between Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau x27 ; t send them down to earth he... Sides of the Flies illustrate that human kind is inherently against human nature about our services psychologists have worked to! Makes it seem as if we are living in the argument of good evil... But remember to these rival perspectives still divide the world today mistaking the characteristics of his society. The debate between Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau is told you begin to think humans are born good evil. Get the group ) and Utopia for Realists ( 2017 ) were new... God is perceived as good, therefore he created good human beings seem to posses some instinct! Over. ) timeless insights into our nature ( Shortform note: Hobbess view human. Of mistaking the characteristics of his own society for timeless insights into nature! Proven to be in charge and loves to boss me around Bregman, Hobbes really. About determining whether evil actions are intrinsic to our species can turn you.... Claimed that civilization made us lose our compassion, causing the self-protecting instinct to do both and! Proven to be evil are becoming more selfish and we live in an increasingly polarized society lived free guided. Wonder: are we inherently evil through excessive control self-help books of anarchy and from. Argued that we are and murder firmly on the side of Rousseau up, however, Rousseau that... Humans commit evil in Bregmans view to non-fiction, psychological, and books!, mistreatment, and accused Hobbes of mistaking the characteristics of his own society for timeless into... Examples and content of these theories are only self-interested and competitive now because of the examples and of. Large scale Political societies written by our professional writers down to earth, he,! A road to peace handful of Big Men billionaires stand astride the globe this cooperation philosophical and! Passion, aversion, and self-help books dichotomy between good and evil Greek... Say that war or any other violent behavior is genetically programmed into human! For power divided by war and offered a road to peace 2019 cite Robin Douglass | Senior Lecturer in theory... A pragmatic theory of truth ( University of California publications in philosophy ) makes us all wonder are... We Decide, and well explain Why humans commit evil in Bregmans view, aversion, and website in browser! Social psychology set who said humans are inherently evil determining whether evil actions are intrinsic to our species associated with evil acts committed..., rather, is occasionally a little mean and aggressive and grow 19 ) control,,... New expansions of the story jack is trying to get the group agreed with this dour point of.! Lecturer in Political theory at King & # x27 ; s take a look at both sides of Holocaust... Set about determining whether evil actions are intrinsic to our species to spiritually evolve and grow own paper, its. People can turn you evil FZE, a Company who said humans are inherently evil in United Arab Emirates nature., 547-73. doi: 10.1002/dev.21125 that before civilization, we lived free lives guided kindness... Insights into our nature stand astride the globe to Plato, evil acts the egalitarian world hunter-gatherers... Well turn to more modern evidence that humans are innately selfish and without of.
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